David A. Whetten, Deborah Lundberg Windes, Douglas R. May, and Doug Bookstaver

The diffusion of innovation literature describes several stages in the life cycle of a new idea (Daft, 1978). First, the idea is proposed by a champion. Second, the idea is picked up by a few loyal supporters. Third, the idea is diffused to a broad population of adopters. Fourth, the idea becomes institutionalized as standard practice.

Several individuals in our field have been championing the idea of management skill education for over a decade. Therefore, on the occasion of the second special issue on this topic in Organizational Behavior Teaching Review (OBTR) it seems appropriate to assess how far along the diffusion cycle this idea has progressed. It is also useful to assess the obstacles inhibiting broader dissemination of this idea and to examine an exemplar that has overcome many of those obstacles. The purposes of this chapter, then, are: first, take stock of how far the management skill education innovation has progressed; second, examine why MST appears to be stalled at stage two of the diffusion process; and third, describe efforts to institutionalize skills education as "standard practice" in our business school.

During the Organizational Behavior Teaching Conference at the University of Southern California held in 1978, participants were asked to vote on the "teaching philosophy of the future". The choices were: case studies, lecture/discussion, individualized instruction using computer technology, and management skill education. An overwhelming majority predicted that management skill education would become a leading, if not the dominant, form of management instruction during the next decade.

At that time this straw vote appeared to be a bell weather indicator of an emerging revolution in management education. It coincided with an avalanche of scholarly and popular articles criticizing traditional business school education (Livingstone, 1971; Mintzberg, 1973), and the rapid proliferation of skill-based training materials in the corporate training market (Goldstein and Sorcher, 1974; Latham and Saari, 1979).

During the years following the conference, a great deal of attention has focused on adapting the skills approach to the business school classroom. Dozens of seminars have been conducted at various professional meetings and on numerous college campuses; special issues of journals have been devoted to the subject; an informal network of over 100 faculty interested in this topic has been created; American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business commissioned a large scale investigation of competency-based instruction (AACSB, 1987); management skill development textbooks have been written (Whetten and Cameron, 1984; Robbins, 1988); research has been conducted on the impact of skill education (McEvoy and Cragun, 1986; Burke and Day, 1986); a variety of pedagogical articles have been written on the "how to's" of skill training (Waters, Adler, Poupart, Hartwick, 1983; Whetten and Cameron, 1983; Cameron and Whetten, 1983); and the popular press has stressed the need for more relevant management education (Steele, 1987; Time, 1981; Business Week, 1986). The continued currency of the skill education concept was demonstrated in the recent Porter and McKibbin study of business school education, commissioned by AACSB and published in 1988. Based on a year-long investigation involving hundreds of interviews with business executives and business school faculty and administrators these former business school deans concluded that management education was deficient in developing interpersonal and communication skills (Porter and McKibbin, 1988).

Given this impressive record of course development activity coupled with an unflagging demand for its implementation, what has been the track record of this innovation thus far? First, two sources of information provide a consistent, albeit impressionistic, answer to this question. An interesting pattern emerges from an analysis of the sales of the Whetten and Cameron (1984) textbook. During the three and a half year period from 1986 to mid-1989, the book had been adopted at least once by over 200 schools. However, only 42 of those adoptions involved orders of larger than 100 books a year, and only 69 were in the 50-100 books per year range. Therefore, approximately one half of all the orders were for less than 50 copies per year. A representative of our publisher added a not so flattering qualitative perspective to these numbers by referring to the text as a "cult book". "It is taught primarily to small groups of students in courses isolated from the mainstream of the curriculum by `zealots'--loyal converts who must continually defend the legitimacy of the course to the remainder of the traditional faculty."

Second, this assessment is consistent with responses to a brief survey sent to over 100 faculty who had expressed interest in management skills. They report that the management skills course is typically taught as an advanced elective to a small number of students by a faculty member who feels strongly that this is a superior approach. The course is popular with students but perceived by many colleagues as too "soft". The following quotes support this conclusion.

"I am really sold on the skills approach. How do I convince my colleagues?"

"My students think the skills class is great. I just wish we could figure out how to expose more students to this experience."

"I am having difficulty convincing other faculty that this is a legitimate course. They tend to brand anything that doesn't follow the traditional format as `soft'. I'm convinced, my students are convinced, but the `powers that be' aren't convinced. Any suggestions?"

Assuming these observations are reasonably accurate, several concerns bear discussion. First, although schools can point to a "token" skills class as evidence of their responsiveness to external critiques, the bulk of their students are not being impacted by the course. Second, teaching interpersonal skills as an elective generally amounts to "preaching to the converted", in the sense that students enrolling in electives are already sympathetic to the subject and possess above average proficiency in content mastery. Third, although the merits of skill-oriented education are widely acknowledged, ignorance of its content and suspicion of its method undermine its credibility.

In brief, it appears that the skills approach to teaching management has established a beach head in many business schools but is having difficulty getting off the beach. Responses to our survey suggest that there are four major obstacles to moving skill education into the mainstream of the management curriculum.

First, it is difficult to teach management skills in large sections and most introductory Management or Organizational Behavior courses use this format. By definition, a skills course is built around student involvement, which is difficult to manage in a 300 person course.

Second, the course has the reputation of being inherently difficult to teach. This image inhibits acceptance by many faculty who are more comfortable with the traditional lecture/discussion format which requires fewer personal risks.

Third, there are often conflicts between student expectations regarding appropriate requirements for a required course and the skill development philosophy. Most undergraduates tend to feel uncomfortable in courses that place heavy emphasis on participation, group work, role playing, outside application, self reflection, and so forth.

Fourth, the course is often viewed as soft on content. It is sometimes confused with the highly experiential "touchy, feely" organizational behavior courses popular during the 1960s. Therefore, OB faculty members who are concerned about potential criticism from "more rigorous" departments may be slow to support a curriculum innovation that might erode their group's political base.

Fifth, there is a great deal of inertia behind the current approaches to teaching management. Irrespective of the merits of older versus newer approaches, older ones tend to persevere due to the institutional support from textbook publishers, course catalogue descriptions, teaching notes, student expectations, and so forth.

Given this daunting set of obstacles to bringing skill training into the mainstream of the management curriculum, one wonders if it is possible to teach management skills as a required course at a large business school. The primary purpose of this chapter is to share our experience in replacing the required "Principles of Management" course taught in a very large state university with a management skills course. We have ten years experience with this innovation that might be useful to others interested in following a similar path. Obviously there are some peculiarities to our institution that make direct imitation inappropriate for dissimilar settings. However, even if our design can not be replicated for a given application, the fact that we have been successful in making the switch may provide the necessary encouragement for other institutions to explore more compatible formats.

Our discussion will focus on the following: course instruction, course design, course requirements, and gaining faculty support for the skills approach.

Course Instruction

Introduction to Management (BA 210) is taught by graduate teaching assistants (TA) who are supervised by the course coordinator (a faculty member) and an assistant coordinator (an experienced TA). Currently, 750 to 800 students enroll in the course each semester, requiring that 20 sections of 36-40 students be scheduled. Ideally, class size would be restricted to 25 students, facilitating discussion and increasing accountability on the part of the students. Unfortunately, current space and budget restrictions necessitate a larger class size. Each section meets twice weekly for 90 minutes over a 16 week period.

A majority of the students enrolled are juniors and seniors majoring in Commerce, Accounting, Economics, and other business related fields. The course is required for these students, but is also required or recommended for a variety of other majors across campus. The caliber of students is high--entrance into the above programs is highly competitive. The variety of backgrounds and interests, along with the competitiveness of the students, ensures lively class discussions and a high degree of participation.

Teaching assistants are selected from a pool of Organizational Behavior doctoral students and second year MBA students. Three key characteristics are sought by the coordinator and assistant coordinator as they screen applicants. First, superior interpersonal and communication skills are essential. Because very little lecture takes place in the classroom, TAs must have the ability to lead discussions, direct role plays, facilitate small group exercises, and communicate one-on-one with their students. They must be able to "think on their feet" and respond to feedback from the class. They must be able to demonstrate the very skills that they are teaching, e.g., supportive communication, motivation, and conflict resolution.

Second, management-related work experience is a significant asset. This experience serves two functions. First, the TA has experienced many of the hurdles to effective management and can therefore approach the subject as an active participant, rather than merely as an intellectual observer. Second, work experience provides the TA a wealth of examples that demonstrate the importance of course topics. Our experience has shown that real-life, personal experiences are essential to establishing the credibility of a TA and in communicating the validity of the course's message.

Third, it is highly desirable that the TA has had courses in Organizational Behavior at the graduate level and is, therefore, familiar with the theories behind effective management skills guidelines.

Successful applicants are hired in the spring before their initial fall semester of teaching. An orientation is held in April, during which they receive class materials and instructions on how to prepare over the summer. These instructions include reading assignments and an outline for the first two weeks of class. Because the class format is different from what most have experienced, new teaching assistants are teamed up with experienced TAs and are invited to visit the TA's classroom two or three times before the end of the semester. During at least one of these visits, they are given an opportunity to lead an exercise or discussion in the class. This exposure decreases the uncertainty of what will be expected of them in the fall.

During the week of fall registration, four days of teacher training are conducted by the course coordinator, assistant course coordinator, and a representative from a campus teacher training support unit, Instructional Management Services (IMS). After an in-depth discussion of course philosophy and expectations, much of the week is spent in "hands on" experience with course material. The instructors are familiarized with the available teaching resources (e.g. videotapes and cases), and then effective classroom discussion, group exercises, and role plays are demonstrated by the training team. Basic teacher training, including classroom discipline, lesson planning, and exam writing, is also an important part of the orientation. At the end of the week, instructors participate in a videotaped "micro-teaching" exercise. They are given five minutes to instruct a class of their peers, using one of three exercises. Immediate feedback is given, plus the videotape is reviewed at a later date with a representative of IMS.

Although much freedom is given to instructors in their design of lessons, support from, and accountability to, both coordinators and peers is stressed throughout their teaching experience. Meetings are held once a month to discuss classroom problems and successes. Instructors are encouraged to work together in planning discussions, exercises, and tests. Additionally, they are visited in the classroom at least once at the beginning of the term by the assistant coordinator or an IMS representative and given feedback on their classroom performance. They are also videotaped a few weeks into the term and later observe and discuss this with IMS personnel. If problems occur past a normal adjustment period, additional classroom visits and videotaping are arranged.

Approximately five weeks into the term, students are given an opportunity to informally evaluate the course and their instructor. We request information on overall teaching and course experience, as well as on specific instructor strengths and weaknesses. The instructor and the assistant coordinator go over these evaluations, and steps are taken to strengthen weak areas. At the completion of the term, formal evaluations are requested of students, and the results are scored by the IMS office. Students whose scores are in the highest 25 percent of instructors across campus are rewarded with a published announcement of their accomplishment, letters of commendation, and they are given first choice of teaching times for the following term. The number of instructors from this course receiving this honor increases each year to the point where a full 50 percent from the Spring Semester of 1989 qualified.

Over the years, we have developed a support system that involves the following commitment from our university. The course coordinator receives credit for teaching one course each semester for supervising BA 210. The associate course coordinator (an OB Ph.D. student) receives a quarter-time assistantship, and twenty TAs receive a quarter-time assistantship for teaching one section of the course. The campus teacher training support office (IMS) provides staff time for assisting with the initial training, videotaping the TAs, and conducting individual play back sessions. (These activities could be conducted by the course coordinator and assistant coordinator.) The department has purchased two sets of video equipment and has set aside two adjacent classrooms for the course. In addition, they have supported the purchase of several videos. A course development grant from the central university administration was used to fund the production of a series of video cases.

Design Of The Course

The course itself begins with a two-week introductory period covering the teaching philosophy and an introduction to management skills. During this time, an attempt is made to use students' experiences to delineate important interpersonal skills and demonstrate their relevance for effective management practice. In addition, cases illustrating different, but equally effective, management styles are used to dispel suspicions that we are simply interested in behavioral mimicry. Also, Will Rogers' observation that "common sense ain't necessarily common practice" is used to stress treating the course as a semester-long management simulation.

Following this introduction, the remainder of the term is spent covering individual skills, with one week devoted to each skill. The textbook, "Developing Management Skills" (Whetten and Cameron, 1984), lays out eight skills deemed essential for effective management. Three weeks are spent covering individual level topics--self awareness, stress management, and creativity. An examination of the student's interpersonal orientation, how they manage stress, and their ability to think creatively are seen as essential to the development of effective managerial skills. Not only will these skills assist students in their individual work, but they also provide a baseline for examining students' performance in group and organization level situations. The course then focuses on six group-level topics: supportive communication, power and influence, motivation, delegation, conflict, and group processes.

The textbook approaches each skill area with a five-step learning model. First, a Skill Preassessment is given to increase students' awareness of their own skill level in a particular area. This is done in a number of ways, including questionnaires and role plays. Second, students are assigned reading from the Skill Learning section, which distills relevant theory and research into a set of behavioral guidelines. Third, Skill Analysis, through the use of written and videotaped cases as well as cases from the students' own experiences, has proven to be an effective way to draw material from the Skill Learning section into the "real-world". The fourth step involves Skill Practice. In this section, students participate in activities and exercises in the classroom and then discuss how skills might be effectively applied within specific organizational settings. The last step is Skill Application, which involves taking what is learned in the classroom and applying it to situations at work or within other groups and organizations in which the student takes part. The purpose of this step is to encourage students to develop proficiency in an interpersonal skill long before they are given the title of manager. The merits of immediately applying skill development learning are shown in Figure 1. Students need to understand that just because management examples are used in the course doesn't mean that these interpersonal skills are only appropriate for management activities. The skills are equally applicable in other roles. And, the sooner they become part of an individual's behavioral repertoire the more likely it is that the person will become a manager, and the more effective he or she will perform in that role.

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As stated earlier, much freedom is given to instructors as they plan daily activities. Instructors are given an abundance of resources to choose from and are encouraged to seek materials from other sources. Guidelines for the use of these resources are given which enhance the learning experience for the student. The outline for a typical class, shown in Figure 2, demonstrates this point. Given that two class periods are typically devoted to each skill, the instructor is encouraged to plan multiple learning

activities which are complementary and mutually reinforcing.

At the beginning of class, the instructor first sets the stage, in terms of "where have we been, where are we going, and how are we going to get there?" Second, the instructor focuses students' attention on a few of the behavioral guidelines in the Skill Learning section of the text, which the instructor feels are most critical. When the instructor zeroes in on what he or she feels most strongly about, the message comes across as both urgent and relevant. Examples from the instructor's work experience, as well as from experiences students have shared, are integrated into this discussion.

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At this point, the instructor moves into the learning activity. Although this can take a number of forms, we stress active student involvement. The following are among the instructor's alternatives:

Video cases. These include both internally developed cases and those available from external sources. A video case series (Persimmon, Inc.) has been developed at the University of Illinois which follows the activities of individuals in two firms through their struggles with communication, delegation, motivation, power, and so on. Because it is closely aligned with the textbook, it has been a convenient and useful resource for instructors. Many external resources are also available through film distributors and public television.

Written cases. There are an abundance of cases available to the instructors from the textbook itself and from magazines and resource books. And, when the instructors have the skills, they can write their own cases drawing from their own experiences. It is usually helpful to have the students read the case prior to class time, break them into small groups for discussion, and then bring them together to compare notes and draw conclusions.

Exercises. These can take a variety of forms. Successful exercises include negotiation exercises when discussing power or conflict, "in-basket" problems when discussing decision making, and group development exercises.

Role playing. This activity is strongly encouraged in this course. The purpose of role playing is to provide a relatively stress-free setting for students to practice newly learned skills. Many students express the opinion that the behavioral guidelines are common sense. However, what they quickly learn through role playing is that what may be intuitively obvious is quite often difficult to implement. Role playing provides an opportunity for them to practice supportive communication, conflict resolution, or motivational techniques before they are faced with a "make or break" situation in the work place.

Role playing can take place either in small groups in the classroom or in front of the class. A typical format involves giving two people different roles to play, with a description of the situation (from the perspective of that role), and the motivations and background of the person each is playing. They are given time to prepare to perform these roles with the help of other class members. They are then paired with a person playing the opposite role, each being unfamiliar with the role of the other. An example may be a manager and a chronically late employee. The employee has reasons for his or her tardiness, which the manager is unaware of, and it is up to the manager to resolve the problem.

Although students often express some uneasiness with role playing at first, it has proven to be an invaluable learning tool. In a number of cases, students have chosen to have a role play final exam in lieu of a written test. Former students have commented that what they retained from a role play experience remained long after the rote knowledge of skill concepts had dissipated.

Students' Problems. An alternative learning activity draws upon the students' own experiences rather than the experiences of others. They are encouraged to relate concerns from their previous or current jobs, or student organizational leadership roles, to skill topics. By breaking up students into small groups and having them consult with one another on these problems, they are one step closer to practicing effective management skills.

When the learning activity is complete, class discussion should focus on: What have we learned? How does this relate to the key behavioral guidelines discussed at the beginning of class? Which of these were the most difficult to implement: Do we need to consider additional guidelines? How can we continue working toward developing effective management skills in this area? How can we take what we've learned and apply it to other everyday experiences?

In Introduction to Management (BA210), the philosophy underlying the evaluation of students' learning reflects the overall course emphasis on the application of course material and behavioral change in students. To achieve these objectives, multiple forms of evaluation are used to test a variety of skills and abilities. All requirements are linked to analogues in real-life organizations. Written criteria are established for each requirement (including classroom participation) and all evaluations are reported using the stated criteria. Our experience has been that students are much more willing to accept "subjective" ratings (e.g., evaluation of a group presentation) if it is clear that the process was systematic and consistent (i.e., criteria-based).

The requirements of the course involve four facets which help transfer the skills and knowledge involved in management: quizzes and a final exam, skill application exercises, classroom participation, and a group project.

Quizzes and Final Exam. Students are required to take four quizzes during the semester, which together account for 30 percent of the course grade. In order to maximize the amount of time instructors are able to spend in application-oriented activities in the classroom, students take quizzes over the text material before it is discussed in class (two chapters per quiz). While this may seem unusual, the text material is designed to be relatively straightforward. The quizzes then serve both a diagnostic function (identifying material that needs to be clarified in class) and an evaluative function (testing students' knowledge of the material).

The quiz format is also atypical: quizzes are first taken individually and then in groups. This facilitates evaluation of individuals' performance as well as acquainting students with group processes. When quizzes are administered, the quizzes and answer sheets are given to students individually. They are allowed 30 minutes to complete the 25 questions and turn in their individual answer sheets. Quiz groups of about 5 students each are then formed (either randomly or in advance). Groups are given one answer sheet each and are allowed another 30 minutes to respond to the same quiz questions. At the end of this process, student groups turn in their answer sheets and the answers to the quiz are then reviewed. Students are given the remainder of the class to write appeals for any of the questions using their text and a solid, logical argument. These appeals are taken into consideration when grading the quizzes. (For more information on this approach see Michaelson et al, 1985).

In addition to the quizzes, a final examination, worth 15 percent of a student's course grade, is given at the end of the term. This two-hour exam tests the students' ability to integrate and apply management skills principles to situations or cases. Some instructors choose to use role plays which are graded on criteria established prior to the exam.

Skill Applications. The Skill Application exercises are designed to extend the classroom learning experience into real-life situations. In order to effectively use the skill application approach, instructors make the assignment after the students have covered the relevant reading material on their own and in class. Students acquire a better understanding of the material through the process of integrating it into their own personal lives.

A sample 5-page skill application report might require students to first assess their current level of a management skill and then use this information to analyze how it might impact their effectiveness as a manager. For example, students in the course fill out assessment instruments about their own personal styles of gathering and processing information as well as their interpersonal orientations. Students are then required to analyze these findings with respect to their plans for future jobs and career goals. Through this exercise, students examine the match between their personal characteristics and their chosen career, and how their approach to problems and people might impact their success as managers.

Class participation. Since this is a highly interactive practicum-style course, class participation and attendance are imperative. Students must be present and actively engaged in classroom activities to maximize their learning. Discussion formats vary from general classroom discussion, to small activities, to dyadic debates. Class discussion is intended to first establish students' knowledge and comprehension of core ideas, and then proceed to higher levels involving analysis, synthesis, and application of ideas (Bloom, 1956). Classroom participation and attendance are worth 15 percent of a student's overall course grade. Classroom participation is evaluated daily using a three-category system. Students with positive attitudes who contribute significantly to classroom discussion or voluntarily act as group leaders are typically given 2 points; students who attend class and contribute relatively little receive 1 point; and finally, those students who do not attend class or are detrimental to class activities receive 0 points. Midsemester feedback meetings are held between the TA and each student to review their classroom participation to date. Students are asked to come to the meeting with a self-evaluation of their own participation level.

Group Project. The purpose of the group project is to first familiarize students with managers and problems experienced in business organizations, and second, to have students experience and learn about group processes first-hand. Since it is common practice in organizations to form work teams based on a specific interest area or expertise, this exercise is designed to facilitate effective group management skills through the tasks involved in the project. Each group in the class is responsible for one of the topics covered in the course and assumes the role of a consulting firm called in to solve a specific problem related to their topic in a real or mythical organization.

Groups are typically comprised of four to five students who express interest in the particular subject area. The group uses information gained from required interviews with managers in organizations and information from recent business periodicals to formulate their organizational "problem." Thus, the group is responsible for both the creation and solution of a typical problem in contemporary organizations.

Each group is required to make a 30 minute professional classroom presentation which covers the background of the organization, description of the problem, proposed remedy, proposed implementation plan, and a question and answer period. During the class period prior to their presentation, groups are required to submit a fact sheet describing their organization and the problem to be addressed. A 3-5 page summary of the group's presentation is turned in the day of the presentation. This summary includes a detailed outline, a description of who performed which project activities, what sources (personal interviews and references) were used for their project, and a paragraph about what the students learned.

The group presentation, summary sheet, and fact sheet are worth 17.5 percent of a student's course grade. They are graded using criteria which cover both content and presentation style.

We are very fortunate to have strong support for the skills orientation at our institution. This is partly due to local history, but it is also to a large extent an outcome of our substantial and consistent efforts to gain legitimacy for the course.

At the time the senior author became interested in experimenting with a skills approach in the Introduction to Management course, there was a great deal of dissatisfaction among the OB faculty with the traditional "principles" approach, for the following reasons. First, there was a feeling that the principles themselves were intellectually flawed. Second, the students felt the highly theoretical orientation of the course was not very relevant or interesting. Third, the management principles text books were importing so much OB material students complained about excessive overlap with the elective OB courses. Fourth, quite frankly, no one was interested in teaching a huge lecture course. Therefore, the proposal to experiment with something new was not opposed.

However, agreement to discontinue current practice does not guarantee acceptance of the proposed alternative. To build political support for the skills approach we have done the following: First, we collected research and anecdotal information about the value of the skills approach. We have found the Accounting faculty particularly supportive because they are criticized by the public accounting firms for turning out technically proficient, but interpersonally deficient, students. We have made sure that interviews with prominent business executives, alumni, and respected faculty, as well as educational research, supporting this position are circulated widely. We also circulate AACSB material supporting competency-based education and make sure the Dean is aware of our efforts to contribute to this important dialogue.

Second, we have stressed the educational, versus training, aspects of the course. We have never used modeling video tapes in the classroom because they create the impression that skill development only involves behavior mimicry. Instead, we emphasize that the course focuses on behavior principles and guidelines which are adapted by the students to their personality, as well as specific organizational circumstances. We also stress that the course is using experiential learning in a deductive, rather than an inductive, mode. That is, rather than having students participate in an exercise and then lead a discussion about what they have learned about leadership or group dynamics denovo, we tell students that decades of experience and research have demonstrated that certain approaches to interpersonal relations work better than others. Our purpose is to teach these and then give students ample opportunity to practice them in simulated business settings and apply them in current, everyday life. Our experience is that other faculty are comfortable with a deductive approach to teaching but are highly suspect of experiential activities as the genesis of inductive learning.

Third, we have discussed with colleagues the pedagogical foundations of the skill development approach, emphasizing its merits. As shown in Table 1 the five-step learning model used in our course represents a hybrid of the best features of traditional educational and training approaches (Whetten and Cameron, 1983). The fact that our teaching philosophy and format are conceptually well-grounded adds legitimacy and credibility to the course.

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Fourth, we use a text that places a great deal of emphasis on conceptual content. The text provides legitimacy for the course by providing far more than a compilation of exercises and activities. In fact, some colleagues have used the text material (Skill Learning Section) to teach complex subjects like motivation and power in a variety of educational settings (e.g., Executive MBA).

Fifth, we use traditional forms of student evaluation. Although the philosophy of the course is more consistent with nontraditional course requirements (e.g., keeping a diary), our experience is that colleagues and students are more likely to view the course as a legitimate undergraduate educational experience if it utilizes traditional requirements (e.g., tests and papers).

Sixth, we publicize the success of the course by circulating high student ratings, favorable comments from graduates and recruiters, etc. This is particularly relevant on our campus because TAs in general are criticized as poor teachers. Given that the administration is very sensitive to the poor public image of TAs, they are pleased with a TA-taught course that produces evaluations higher than the average faculty ratings for similar courses.

Seventh, we avoid criticizing other OB courses taught using more conventional methods. We do not argue that all OB courses should be skill-oriented. Indeed, we see the current curriculum mix as beneficial. We can advise the more theoretically oriented students in BA 210 to take upper division OB courses, and students in elective courses are less likely to complain about the discipline's lack of relevance, given their BA 210 experience. An interesting consequence of using the skills approach in the introductory course is that students expect a higher level of involvement in OB electives.

Eighth, we assume responsibility for teaching Ph.D. students how to teach. Our course has become an exemplary teacher development program that provides students with intensive instruction on educational methods, close supervision and support, and an opportunity to gain teaching experience in a course where the content is relatively structured but the teaching process requires them to develop advanced teaching skills. This takes the pressure of other faculty having to supervise TAs in upper division courses, and it has substantially reduced the complaints from TAs about being put in a "sink or swim" teaching situation.

Finally, we have gained support for our format from departments outside the College. BA 210 is one of the most oversubscribed courses on campus. We like to believe that this is partly due to its good reputation among students, but we also recognize that it has much to do with program requirements in other departments. Many degree programs want students to have some exposure to the management curriculum, so they require the Introduction to Management course. It is very clear that faculty advisors in these user departments are pleased with the "hands on," highly practical approach in our general survey course and thus are strongly supportive of student participation.

We began our discussion by assessing the current status of management skill training as an educational innovation in American business schools. We argued that it is being taught as an elective course in most settings. Although this is obviously the easiest form of the innovation to manage, it is also the least effective, in terms of having a broad-scale impact on the undergraduate business student body. In an effort to understand why more schools have not incorporated the skills approach into their required courses we examined several obstacles to achieving this level of institutionalization. Then, we presented one approach for successfully overcoming those obstacles.

We recognize that it is difficult to generalize from one set of local conditions to another. What has worked for us may not be feasible at another university. Clearly we were able to capitalize on some favorable circumstances (e.g., there were no local champions for the principles approach to teaching management, we had a tradition of using MBAs as TAs, there were instructional support personnel on campus who were experienced in designing teacher training programs. However, we hope that by sharing our "lessons learned" others who are interested in following our lead might benefit from some encouragement as well as practical ideas for removing obstacles in their path.

While it is obvious to all supporters of the skills approach to teaching management that offering it as an elective is superior to not providing the option at all, we hope it is equally obvious that what is good for 30 students is better for 300 (especially if 90 percent of those 300 will never take another management/OB course). There are simply too many scholarly articles and research studies challenging the validity of the principles approach and demonstrating the utility of the skills approach to warrant any other conclusion. Hopefully, our experience will motivate others to aggressively pursue the option of incorporating the skills approach into their Introduction to Management course.